Butio-vespeiro

Taken from the BWP on CD-ROM: copyright Oxford University Press.

Food
In summer and winter quarters, mainly nests, larvae, pupae, and adults of social Hymenoptera (wasps, hornets, bumble-bees); also, but more so in spring, other insects, amphibians, reptiles, small mammals, nestlings and eggs of birds, and occasionally spiders, worms, and fruit. Locates prey from perch (branch, pylon, etc.) or, more often, in flight by following insects to nests. Digs out hymenopteran nests; often to some depth (up to 40 cm) until most of body underground. Wasps caught with bill; seized by middle and sting nipped off before swallowing. Also hunts on foot - distances over 500 m recorded - to catch ground-insects (e.g. beetles) and small vertebrates with bill. Fruit taken from ground or plucked from trees, and stone separated from flesh with claws. Large quantities of wasp comb from which larvae removed, found on and, late in the fledgling period, beneath nests: cell walls almost always ‚chewed‘ down and presumed this material provides roughage that might not otherwise be available from high protein wasp larva diet.

Adaptations relating to methods of feeding and prey probably include: small, dense, scale-like feathers on forehead and lores which reduce possibility of stings; powerful feet with thick scales and slightly curved claws of almost equal size for digging and walking; slit-like nostrils to reduce soil blockage while digging.

Taken from the BWP on CD-ROM: copyright Oxford University Press.

Food
In summer and winter quarters, mainly nests, larvae, pupae, and adults of social Hymenoptera (wasps, hornets, bumble-bees); also, but more so in spring, other insects, amphibians, reptiles, small mammals, nestlings and eggs of birds, and occasionally spiders, worms, fruit, and berries. Locates prey from perch (branch, pylon, etc.) or, more often, in flight by following insects to nests. In north-east France, 85% prey found while bird in flight, 15% from perch (Thiollay 1967a). Digs out hymenopteran nests using feet alternately (Ringleben 1937) or only one foot (Heinroth and Heinroth 1926–7; Løppenthin 1945; Trap-Lind 1962), sometimes with help from bill. Often digs to some depth (up to 40 cm) until most of body underground (Niethammer 1938; Trap-Lind 1962). Wasps caught with bill; seized by middle and sting nipped off before swallowing (Naumann 1899; Brown and Amadon 1968), though Blanc (Blanc 1957) and Trap-Lind (Trap-Lind 1962) found adult wasps rarely eaten and only killed to remove them. Also hunts on foot - distances over 500 m recorded (Glutz et al. 1971) - to catch ground-insects (e.g. beetles) and small vertebrates with bill (Ruthke 1937; Hauri 1955; Münch 1955). Takes insects in flight and, especially in Africa, termites (Isoptera); also in Africa, wasps' and hornets nests snatched from under eaves of houses or from branches (Brown and Amadon 1968; Brown 1970). Fruit and berries taken from ground or plucked from trees, and stone separated from flesh with claws (Glutz et al. 1971). Some pellet-formation, but regularity and amount varies with diet (Niethammer 1938; Dementiev and Gladkov 1951a). Large quantities of wasp comb from which larvae removed, found on and, late in the fledgling period, beneath nests: cell walls almost always ‚chewed‘ down and presumed this material provides roughage that might not otherwise be available from high protein wasp larva diet (C R Tubbs).
Adaptations relating to methods of feeding and prey probably include: small, dense, scale-like feathers on forehead and lores which reduce possibility of stings; powerful feet with thick scales and slightly curved claws of almost equal size for digging and walking; slit-like nostrils to reduce soil blockage while digging (Newton 1896; Dementiev and Gladkov 1951a). Possibly also have internal morphological adaptations or immunity to venom (Birkhead 1974).

Seasonal differences in diet apparent, with Hymenoptera chief prey when at greatest abundance. Larvae, pupae (including cocoons), adults, and probably honeycomb pieces eaten, particularly of wasps Vespa, Polistes, and on occasions bumble-bees Bombus. Following also regularly taken, roughly in order of frequency (though varying with locality and availability). Insects: Coleoptera (Carabidae, Curculionidae, Staphylinidae, Elateridae, Byrrhidae, Cantharidae, Scolytidae, Scarabaeidae, Chrysomelidae, Rhipiphoridae, Cerambycidae); Lepidoptera (larvae of Noctuidae, including Plusia gamma); Orthoptera (grasshoppers, locusts); Mantidae; Hymenoptera (honeybees Apis, ants Formica, Myrmica); Diptera (fly larvae); Dermaptera (earwigs Forficula). Amphibians: frogs, mainly Rana temporaria and R. arvalis, less R. esculenta and Hyla arborea. Birds: mainly nestlings and just-fledged young (including Jay Garrulus glandarius, Partridge Perdix perdix, Yellowhammer Emberiza citrinella, domestic chicken Gallus) and eggs (of Dunnock Prunella modularis, Blackbird Turdus merula, Song Thrush T. philomelos, Woodpigeon Columba palumbus, Spotted Flycatcher Muscicapa striata). Reptiles: lizards Lacerta, slow-worm Anguis fragilis, snakes Natrix, Elaphe longissima. Less often, small mammals¾mice (species not recorded), mole Talpa europaea, weasel Mustela nivalis¾annelids (worms), and arachnids (spiders). Fruit (especially plums Prunus domestica, cherries P. avium) and berries (of cuckoo-pint Arum maculatum) also eaten in summer. (Koch 1885; Pittet 1930; Chapin 1932; Wendland 1935; Witherby et al. 1939; Uttendörfer 1939, Uttendörfer 1952, Tur%ek 1950, Münch 1955, Glutz et al. 1971, C R Tubbs.)

In 107 stomachs, Germany, 1900–10, chiefly wasps (45.8% frequency), beetles, orthopterans, lepidopteran larxae, frogs, and birds (Glutz et al. 1971). Prey found at c. 35 nests in Germany mainly wasps (chiefly Vespa vulgaris and V. rufa also V. media, V. germanica, V. norvegica var. saxonica, V. sylvestris, V. crabro and Polistes), frogs (chiefly Rana temporaria), and less often young birds (chiefly thrushes Turdus) (Uttendörfer 1952). 4 stomachs north-west Spain. May¾lepidopteran larvae (Catocala nimphame), orthopteran larvae (Antaxius), and frog Hyla arborea; June¾30 Vespa (including V. germanica, V. vulgaris); August¾50 V. germanica; September¾orthopteran (probably Conocephalus fuscus, life stage not given), and ovipositors of Acrididae. Food brought to one nest mainly honeycombs of wasps (V. media, V. germanica, V. vulgaris) and, less often, lizards (Lacerta lepida, L. schreiberi) c. 15 cm, and once viscera of passerine bird (Castroviejo and Fernàndez 1968). In Norway, prey collected from 5 nests and contents of 6 crops and 13 stomachs consisted predominantly of wasp adults, pupae, and larvae, mainly V. vulgaris, less V. norvegica var. saxonica, V. media, and possibly V. rufa. Other insects found, though comparatively rarely, included bumble-bees Bombus, grasshoppers, ants, beetles, lepidopteran larvae, and earwigs. Vertebrates included 9 frogs (6 R. temporaria), 1 toad Bufo bufo, 1 Fieldfare Turdus pilaris, and 1 passerine bird (Hagen and Bakke 1958). In Denmark, 104 items taken to a nest over 53 days: wasp nests (64 times), frogs (20), unidentified invertebrates (53), bumble-bee nests (15), small birds (2), worms (2), and once a lizard (Holstein 1944). One stomach, south-east England, autumn, contained nests, combs, larvae, pupae, and adults of V. vulgaris; one, May, staphylinid beetle, weevil (Curculionidae), earwigs (including Chelidurella acanthopygia), Crematogaster scutellaris, and grass (Harrison 1931). In north-east France, prey included 149 hymenopteran nests (honey, wax, eggs, larvae, pupae, and adults eaten), mostly Vespa (V. sylvestris, V. rufa, V. vulgaris), and some Bombus, 3 young passerines (unidentified), 1 young Tree Pipit Anthus trivialis, 1 small grass snake Natrix natrix, 5 frogs, 6 beetles, 3 orthopterans, 1 snail Helix pomatia, 2 earthworms (Lumbricidae), and 5 small fruits; twice ants' nests Myrmica and Formica plundered (Thiollay 1967a). USSR studies confirm Hymenoptera, especially hornets V. crabro and wasps V. germanica and Polistes gallicus main prey in breeding season; supplemented, especially when first arrive and after breeding season, by other insects, frogs, snakes, small birds, and rodents (Dementiev and Gladkov 1951a).

Nestlings fed 3–6 times per day, increasing to 7–9, and very rarely up to 15 times (Gentz 1935; Münch 1955; Rode 1955; Thiollay 1967a). From 14 days, young begin to feed themselves on larvae from honeycombs in nest, and, at 4 weeks, will swallow young birds, lizards, slow-worms, and frogs (Hagen and Bakke 1958). One, 5 weeks old, ate grass snake N. natrix 40 cm long (Rode 1955).